Table 2. A list of the 12 major decisions and the basic principles used to distinguish among five forest management approaches (FMAs) as well as the main silvicultural systems associated with each FMA.



Decision	Basic principle by FMA
	Intensity scale

	Passive “Unmanaged forest nature reserve”	Low “Close-to-nature forestry”	Medium “Combined objective forestry”	High “Intensive even-aged forestry”	Intensive “Short rotation forestry”

1. Naturalness of tree species composition	Only species characteristic of the potential natural vegetation (PNV)	Native or site-adapted species	Tree species suitable for the site	Tree species suitable for the site	Any species (not invasive)
2. Tree improvement^†	No	Not genetically modified or derived from tree breeding programs	Planting material can be derived from tree breeding but not genetically modified	Planting material can be derived from tree breeding but not genetically modified	Planting material can be derived from tree breeding or produced via genetic modification.
3. Type of regeneration	Natural regeneration / natural succession	Natural regeneration (planting for enrichment or change in tree species composition)	Natural regeneration, planting, and seeding	Natural regeneration, planting, and seeding	Planting, seeding, and coppice.
4. Successional elements	Yes	Yes	Temporarily	No	No
5. Machine operation	No	Extensive	Medium	Intensive	Most intensive
6. Soil cultivation	No	No (only to introduce natural regeneration)	Possible (mainly to promote natural regeneration)	Possible	Yes
7. Fertilization / Liming	No	No (only if devastated soil^‡)	No (only if devastated soil^‡)	Possible	Yes
8. Application of chemical agents	No	No	Possible as a last resort	Possible	Possible
9. Integration of nature protection	High	High	High	Medium	Low
10. Tree removals	No	Stem (solid volume)	Stem and crown (solid volume)	Up to whole tree	Whole tree and residues
11. Final harvest (and main silvicultural) system	No	Mimics natural disturbances Single Stem Selection Group Selection Irregular shelterwood	All possible Seed tree Strip shelterwood Group shelterwood Uniform shelterwood Coppice with standards	All possible, clearcut (long rotation) preferably used	All possible, Coppice Clearcut (shorter rotation)
12. Maturity	No intervention	Long rotation length ≥ age of max. MAI or target diameter according to tree species and stem quality	Medium rotation length ≈ age of max. MAI or target diameter according to tree species and stem quality	Short rotation length ≈ age of max. financial return (low interest rate)	Shortest rotation length ≤ age of max. MAI or ≈ age of max. financial return (high interest rate)

^† In this decision element, the definitions might need to be adjusted in future if the principle of genetic modification became more widely accepted in forestry. For example, planting stock produced through genetic modification might be accepted in “Intensive even-aged forestry.” ^‡ Devastated soil = soil that needs measures to get it into an acceptable condition.