Table 1. Three research approaches to social learning: main characteristics


	Individual-centric	Network-centric	Systems-centric

Characterizing features
Learning process	Transformative: learning as a transformative process that occurs during a participatory activity and involves the individual	Experiential: learning as a process embedded in past experience and/or observation of other practitioners	Emergent: learning as an emergent property of the social-ecological system
Learning outcomes	A change of participants' internal-reflective processes; a change of participants' behavior	A change in established resource use or management practices	Shift of the social-ecological system on a more sustainable path
Level of analysis
Unit of observation	The individual	The individual, network, multi-stakeholder platform	The individual, ecosystems, institutions
Unit of analysis	The participant	Networks Multi-stakeholder platforms	The social-ecological system
Learning agent of interest	The individual who participates in a participatory workshop	The practitioner, member of a community of practice, and/or network of practitioners	The stakeholder, community member, or practitioner who is involved in resource management
Operationalization
Operational measures	Moral dimension (civil virtues), cognitive dimension (improved understanding of problem domain), relational dimension (relational base), trust (trust toward participants, process)	Change in how things are done; improved relationships	Change of institutions and management practices at higher levels (e.g., policy), with interest for ecosystem responses