Table 1. Summary of the major historical periods and events that have influenced the self-organization capacity of the Galapagos social-ecological system. Major period (time span) Major events Social-ecological effects Extractive exploitation (1535–1832) Tomás de Berlanga discovered the islands in 1535 Pirates and buccaneers used the islands as a refuge and a source of water and food (1684–1790) Whalers and fur seal hunters exploited the archipelago (1800s) Exploitation of giant tortoise for fresh meat Several populations of giant tortoise depleted (> 200,000 hunted) First alien mammals introduced Colonization (1832–1959) Ecuador took possession of the archipelago in 1832 First serious colonization attempt on Floreana Island (1832–1841) Charles Darwin visited Galapagos in 1835 International conflicts for possession of the archipelago A special law promoted colonization of the archipelago (1885): several colonization attempts followed Exploitation of tuna fishery (1900s) International scientific expeditions explored the islands and strongly supported protection of the archipelago (1905–1939) U.S. military base established on Baltra Island in 1943 Permanent human settlements established on four of the islands Native ecosystems of the highlands (Scalesia, Miconia) of San Cristóbal and Floreana islands cleared and transformed by agricultural activities Cattle released on the major islands Increasing demand for perishable food drove the first wave of new seeds and exotic plants arriving from the mainland Alien invasive plants and animals proliferated on the inhabited islands, altering ecological processes and eroding native biodiversity After Darwin’s work, Galapagos became well known among scientists as a “paradise” for research regarding conservation and evolution Increasing international concern about the need to preserve the uniqueness of Galapagos Wilderness conservation (1959–1998) Galapagos National Park established in 1959 Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galapagos Islands created in 1959 Organized cruise-boat tourism began in 1969 Galapagos officially became a province of Ecuador in 1973 First management plan of the National Park approved (1974) Galapagos National Park declared a World Natural Heritage (1978) and a Biosphere Reserve (1984) Galapagos National Institute (Instituto Nacional Galápagos, INGALA) created in 1980 to guide planning and development in the islands Lobster and sea cucumber fisheries generated a sort of “gold-rush” in the archipelago (early 1980s and 1990s) Almost 97% of the islands’ territory became protected (the areas that were not yet colonized) Coordinated efforts to preserve biodiversity began Charles Darwin Research Station established in Puerto Ayora (Santa Cruz Island) International recognition of the islands’ value and uniqueness Flow of goods and services from the continent and between islands increased dramatically Local authorities and members of parliament elected, increasing the political influence on technical decisions Civil servants arrived and reinforced the presence of public institutions Communications and transportation among the islands increased Growing economic opportunities triggered immigration, the overexploitation of coastal fisheries, and the arrival of new exotic species Building construction and infrastructure development expanded Conflicts between artisanal fishermen and mainland industry for the use of local fisheries Conservation-development balance (1998–present) Galapagos Special Law passed in 1998 Galapagos inspection and quarantine system (SESA-SICGAL) established Galapagos Marine Reserve established in 1998; management plan approved in 1999 Galapagos Regional Plan approved in 2003 Fourth management plan of the Galapagos National Park approved in 2005 Galapagos added to UNESCO list of endangered heritage sites in 2007 The archipelago attained special status: protection, migratory restrictions, quarantine system, and participatory management of the Galapagos Marine Reserve Fisheries management improved, but political decisions and social considerations still hindered technical management Social conflicts proliferated around the prohibition of long-line fishing and the sea cucumber closed season Social discontent with the unfair distribution of benefits derived from tourism Locally based tourism began to be promoted